The Glacier-Groundwater Connection
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The loss of alpine glaciers, and their subsequent meltwater, is altering how alpine ecosystems function. Scientists are investigating this water resource issue by taking a new approach to understand the problem.
The Alpine
Glacier-Groundwater
Connection
AN EXPLORATION DEEP INTO THE SUBSURFACE OF GLACIATED MOUNTAINS
Glaciers hold 69% of the world’s supply of fresh water.
nsidc.org

When they melt, they contribute to surrounding bodies of water that communities rely on in the form of springs, lakes, and rivers.

When they melt, they contribute to surrounding bodies of water that communities rely on in the form of springs, lakes, and rivers.

Global warming has increased the melt rates of glaciers worldwide.
Mount Hood National Park Glacier
20,000-10,000 years ago
*Frasier Glaciation
Mount Hood National Park Glacier
1950's
Mount Hood National Park Glacier
1990's
Global warming has increased the melt rates of glaciers worldwide.
Mount Hood National Forest
Mount Hood National Forest
20,000-10,000 years ago
*Frasier Glaciation
Crandell, NSIDC, Jackson and Fountain
Mount Hood National Forest
1950's
Crandell, NSIDC, Jackson and Fountain
Mount Hood National Forest
1990's
Crandell, NSIDC, Jackson and Fountain
Nearly all glaciers are in retreat and if melt rates continue, many of these glaciated landscapes are projected to be ice free within this century.
Clarke et al., Bosson and Osipova, Zekollari et al.
But where will the water go when they all melt?
There is evidence that glacial melt water is also stored in the mountains themselves as groundwater. The amount of water and its role in the hydrologic cycle remains poorly quantified.
Mountain-block recharge occurs when meltwater enters the saturated media beneath the water table.
When underground aquifiers become saturated, the water is released back to the surface as springs and into streams.
But few studies have investigated the link between glacial melt and deep groundwater recharge.
Some of the meltwater leaves as surface runoff. There is evidence that glacial melt water is also stored in the mountains themselves as groundwater. The amount of water and its role in the hydrologic cycle remains poorly quantified.
Mountain-block recharge occurs when meltwater enters the saturated media beneath the water table.
When the meltwater recharges, it is incorporated into the mountain groundwater system. It may be discharged at springs and streams as baseflow.
But few studies have investigated the link between glacial melt, mountain block recharge, and deep groundwater circulation.
1/6
of the world's population depend on glaciers and seasonal snowpack for water.
‍
ipcc.ch, Bales et al.
If the glaciers do disappear, then what will happen to those who have been dependent on this water?
1/6 of the world's population depend on glaciers and seasonal snowpack for water.
ipcc.ch, Bales et al.
If the glaciers do disappear, then what will happen to those who have been dependent on this water?
In order to better understand these water systems, scientists conducted research to investigate if alpine glaciers are important in recharging groundwater systems.
Scientists broke down the process into three steps.
Step 1
Collect samples in the field
Step 2
Identify spring water sources
Step 3
Identify unique DNA in samples
Step 1

Collecting water samples

Water from springs was collected to test where the source of the water came from.
Scientists determined that the best sampling sites must have the following characteristics:
Water from springs was collected to test where the source of water came from. Scientists determined that the best sampling sites must have the following characteristics:
different ecologic communities
different geologies
receding glaciers

This is because they wanted to test the possible glacier-groundwater connection in varying locations.

The study sites chosen were Mount Hood National Forest (Oregon, USA) and Glacier National Park (Montana, USA).

Water samples were collected from multiple areas.
Sampling locations categorized by sample type for Mount Hood (A-E) and Glacier National Park (F-H) and surrounding regions. Inset boxes are denoted by corresponding border color. Spring and stream samples are shown in white, and those having SSU rRNA sequencing data are shown with an “X”. Read more here.
See more about the sample locations here.
Mount Hood National Forest
Oregon, USA
Scientists went into the field to collect samples from Mount Hood National Forest.
Researchers went into the field to collect water samples from springs using special equipment to ensure the area was undisturbed.
silicon tubing for water transference
nalgene for water collection
Assembly of 3D printed Pump
silicon tubing for water collection
Nalgene for water storage
Assembly of 3D printed Pump

Researchers used a portable, 3D printed peristaltic pump to directly transport water from the spring emergence new Nalgene bottles.

Each spring also has microorganisms unique to the area. In order to collect these microorganisms for future tests, they attached a fine filter to the end of the tubing that was able to separate them.

88
samples were collected from Mount Hood
54
were from spring/stream samples
were glacial ice, glacial melt, snow, snow algae, or rain samples
34
88
samples were collected from Mount Hood
54
were from spring/stream samples
34
were glacial ice, glacial melt, snow, algae, or rain samples
Glacier National Park
Montana, USA
Scientists went into the field to collect samples from Glacier National Park.
44
samples were collected from Glacier National Park
11
were from spring/stream samples
33
were glacial ice, glacial melt, snow, algae, or rain samples
44
samples were collected from Glacier National Park
11
33
were from spring/stream samples

were glacial ice, glacial melt, snow, snow algae, or rain samples
Step 2

Isotope Analysis

For example, magenta is made by mixing equal parts blue and red. This means that blue and red are the sources of magenta.
Spring water is made of different components much like colors.
We can use the same thought process to understand the source of spring water.
For a detailed description of mixing models and endmember mixing analyses, please see a presentation by Fengjing Liu.
If we mix equal parts snow and glacial ice, we end up with water that is composed of snow and ice sources.
What if the amounts of snow and glacial ice that make up the collected spring water are unknown?
A mixing model can be utilized to determine the unknown amounts of snow and glacial ice in a sample.
Isotopes and chemical constituents can be measured in water samples. Different water sources of water often have unique isotopic compositions. This means that snow and glacial ice have different and distinct isotopic values. These values are known as end-members.
snow
rain
glacial melt
In this study, both 2 end-member (snow and glacial melt) and 3 end-member (rain, snow, and glacial melt) mixing models are being used.
The 3 end-member mixing model is being used in Mount Hood National Forest because we have three distinct sources of precipitation that are thought to contribute to spring flow: rain, snow, and glacial melt.
In Glacier National Park, however, we suspect that the dominant sources of recharge are snow and glacial melt. This is because the majority of rain falls when evapotranspiration demand is the highest (this is the water used by trees and plants). Thus, very little recharge is thought to occur from rain directly.
By using a mixing model, scientists were able to find out how much of each source of water contributed to the spring water.
Findings
This is some text inside of a div block.
Mount Hood
Glacier National Park
This is some text inside of a div block.
Mount Hood
Glacier National Park
Glacier National Park
Mount Hood National Forest
The end-member zones are the range of isotopic values for each end-member.
Glacier National Park
Mount Hood National Forest
The circles are the isotopic values of each spring sample. You can see that they fall between the ice and snow end-member zones. This means that they are composed of part ice and part snow. Samples that are closer to the end-member zone contain more of that end-member.
Glacier National Park
Mount Hood National Forest
Using the mixing model, scientists can calculate the percentage of each end member in each spring sample. The mixing model found that there were spring samples that had more than 60% glacier ice contribution. These samples are colored teal. This shows that a substantial proportion of glacial meltwater may remain in the mountain groundwater system.
Glacier National Park
Mount Hood National Forest
Step 3

Identify unique microbial DNA in springs receiving recharge from glacial melt

Alpine glacier ecosystems host unique, extremophile microbial communities.
Scientists collected the microbes and extracted the RNA back in the lab. The portion of DNA that is transcribed into RNA are called “genes". The RNA genes, also known as taxa, were compared in all of our spring water samples.
DNA filters are used to separate out microorganisms from spring water
RNAlater is used to preserve DNA in the field
Syringes are used to inject the filters with RNAlater
Falcon tubes are to store the filters until they get to the lab
Parafilm is used to seal everything
If the presence of these unique microbial communities is found in both glacial melt and spring water, it can be concluded that they were able to travel through groundwater systems to end up in the spring.

Findings
There are also taxa present in only 1 group and not the other. This shows alpine springs primarily supported by glacial meltwater contain unique microbial taxa not found in other samples.
What’s interesting is that there are taxa (bars) that are present in both.
The abundance is how much of that taxa is present. Any taxa that has an abundance below 0 means that it has extremely low abundance/presence.
The dominant taxa in each of these groups is shown.
The samples from both Glacier National Park and Mount Hood were separated into two groups: samples that had greater than 60% glacial contribution (glacier) and samples that did not (snow).
   
‍
Findings
   
‍
The samples from both Glacier National Park and Mount Hood were separated into two groups: samples that had greater than 60% glacial contribution (glacier) and samples that did not (snow).
The dominant taxa in each of these groups is shown.
The abundance is how much of that taxa is present. Any taxa that has an abundance below 0 means that it has extremely low abundance/presence.
What’s interesting is that there are taxa (bars) that are present in both.
There are also taxa present in only one group and not the other. This shows alpine springs primarily supported by glacial meltwater contain unique microbial taxa not found in other samples.
The isotopic DNA analyses showed that recharge from glacial meltwater is vital in maintaining flow in alpine springs and it supports their distinct microbiomes.
By showing that glacial meltwater is a significant source of recharge, this suggests that mountain groundwater systems are dependent upon on a non-permanent source of recharge. Once the glaciers are gone, this source of recharge will be gone. How will this impact alpine communities and ecosystems?
Glacial meltwater has the ability to impact many communities including:
670 million people who depend on glaciers and seasonal snowpack for water.
Farmers around Mount Hood who rely on groundwater for their crops.
Endangered species like the Scott’s apatanian caddisfly and the coho salmon.
Native species in the Glacier National Park area such as trout and stoneflies.
Glacial meltwater has the ability to impact many communities including:
670 million people who depend on glaciers and seasonal snowpack for water.
Farmers around Mount Hood who rely on groundwater for their crops.
Native species in Glacier National Park area such as the trout and stoneflies.
Endangered species like the Scott's apatanian caddisfly and the coho salmon.
670 million people who depend on glaciers and seasonal snowpack for water.
Native species in the Glacier National Park area such as the trout and stoneflies.
Farmers around Mount Hood who rely on groundwater for their crops.
Endangered species like the Scott’s apatanian caddisfly and the coho salmon.
Glacial runoff delivers vital water for communities and ecosystems. If some of this water is being recharged and temporarily stored in the mountain block, then there is a lag time in delivery that is not being accurately considered in regional water studies or management strategies.
Scientists are continuing to work to address this problem through research. Becoming aware of the problem is a great first step to recognize the glacier-groundwater connection.
Glacial runoff delivers vital water for communities and ecosystems. If some of this water is being recharged and temporarily stored in the mountain block, then there is a lag time in delivery that is not being accurately considered in regional water studies or management strategies.
Scientists are continuing to work to address this problem through research. Becoming aware of the problem is a great first step to recognize the glacier-groundwater connection.
This project could not have been possible without the following sponsors:
Funding for this research was provided by the National Science Foundation Grant (EAR 1904075 and 1904159).
Thank you to the following:
Mary Ellen Fitzgerald
Special Uses Specialist, Mount Hood National Forest
Greg Wanner
Supervisory Fish Biologist, Mount Hood Forest Service
Elizabeth Gerrits
Park Ranger, Glacier National Park
Deb Glosser, Amine Chater, Kalsey Graner, and Marc Rouleau
Ice Climbers, Mount Hood
Kris Nerczuk
Colleague’s Friend, Mount Hood Fieldwork Package Receiver
Noah Stewart-Maddox
Research Hydrologist, Idaho Department of Water Resources
Kyle Kube
Staff Specialist, SMEUSA
Pete Siqueiros
Middle School Physical Education Teacher, Visalia Unified School District
Tara Carolin
Director of the Crown of the Continent Research Learning Center, Glacier National Park
Joe Giersch
Aquatic Entomologist, Northern Rocky Mountain Science Center of the USGS
Fred Schatz
Superintendent, Crystal Springs Water District
Bob and Sally Havig
Colleague’s Parents, Mount Hood Fieldwork “Home Base”
Zach Meyers
Postdoctoral Scholar, University of the Pacific
James Haydock
Staff Geologist, Geowave Solutions Inc.
Rene Paul Acosta
Postdoctoral Scholar, University of Michigan
Mariah Romero
PhD Student, Montana State University
Caelum Mroczek
Volunteer Hydrologic Field Technician, Northern Arizona University
About
Jordyn Miller
PhD Candidate, Purdue University, jorbmiller@purdue.edu
Jordyn is a Hydrogeologist who uses data analysis, geochemistry, and map-making to investigate hydrologic systems in alpine, glaciated settings. She is passionate about sharing her science with those both within and outside the scientific community. Her complementary background as an Engineer and appreciation of the arts yield unique results in her scientific endeavors.
Dr. Marty Frisbee
Co-PI, mdfrisbee@purdue.edu
Marty is a hydrogeologist in the Department of Earth, Atmospheric, and Planetary Sciences at Purdue University. His lab studies groundwater/surface-water interactions focusing on the impacts of climate change and land-use/land-cover change to hydrogeological, hydrogeochemical, and ecohydrogeological processes. He has a special interest in mountain groundwater systems. 
Dr. Trinity Hamilton
Co-PI, trinityh@umn.edu
Trinity is an environmental microbiologist. Her lab at the University of Minnesota studies the functions and interactions of microorganisms in natural and engineered systems and how microbial communities respond and adapt to environmental change.
The full research done can be read open-access here.